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Many investors start with less than $10,000 in their trading accounts. How- ever, it is important to realize that the less you have in your account, the more cautious you have to be. Perhaps the toughest problem is to establish a sufficient capital base to invest effectively. If you begin investing or trading with very little capital, you will assure yourself of failure. Making money in the markets requires a learning curve, and incurring loss is part of the trading process. When it comes to trading, “you have to pay to play.” You don’t need to be a millionaire, but trading does require a certain amount of capital to get started. In many cases, the brokerage firm you choose will determine how much is required to put you in the game. How- ever, no matter how much you begin with, it is a good idea to start out by trading conservatively. If you invest smartly, you can make very good returns and your financial goals will be realized.

When economists analyze the firm’s costs, they often present a highly mechanical- some would say unrealistic- view that doesn’t take into account the subjective nature of costs and the uncertainty about the future payoffs of many choices decision makers really face.
It is important to keep in mind that costs are incurred when choices are made.
When business decision makers choose to purchase raw materials, hire new employees, or renew the lease on a plant, they incur costs. All these decisions, like other choices, must be made under conditions of uncertainty. Of course, past experience can help business decision makers anticipate the likely costs of various decisions. But the world is constantly changing; the future may differ substantially from the past.
Opportunity costs are expected costs- they represent the highest valued option that the decision maker expects to give up as the result of a choice. Think for a moment of what the cost curves developed in this series of posts really mean. The firm’s short-run MC curve represents the opportunity cost of expanding output, given the firm’ s current plant size. The firm’s long-run ATC curve represents the opportunity cost per unit of output associated with varying plant sizes and rates of output, given that the alternative plants are still on the drawing board. Opportunity costs look forward, reflecting expectations of what will be forgone as a result of current decisions. At the time decisions must be made, neither the short-run MC nor the long-run ATC can be determined from accounting records, since accounting costs look backward. Accounting figures yield valuable information about historical costs, but, as the following section illustrates, they must be interpreted carefully when they are used to forecast future costs.